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According to Edward Said, the idea of “crisis” in Orientalism refers to a deep intellectual, moral, and political problem in the way the West has studied, represented, and spoken about the East (the Orient). Said believes that Orientalism is not an innocent academic discipline. Instead, it is a system of knowledge linked with power, and this creates a serious crisis. In simple terms, the crisis in Orientalism can be explained through the following points: Edward Said argues that the first crisis is a crisis of representation. The West does not describe the Orient as it really is. Instead, it creates imaginary, stereotyped, and fixed images of the East. Eastern people are shown as backward, irrational, emotional, lazy, and uncivilized, while the West is shown as rational, progressive, and superior. Because of this, the Orient loses its real voice, and the Western version becomes the “truth.” This false representation creates a serious intellectual crisis. The second crisis is a crisis o...

An epithet is a word or short phrase used to describe a person, place, or thing by highlighting a special quality or characteristic. It is often used in poetry and storytelling to make descriptions more vivid and memorable. An epithet becomes famous when it is repeatedly used for the same character or object. Writers use epithets to give a clearer picture, create mood, or show cultural values. They can be positive, negative, or neutral, depending on what quality the writer wants to emphasize. Key Features A descriptive word or phrase attached to a name or object. Highlights a special quality or characteristic. Often repeated in epics and oral traditions. Makes language more vivid and expressive. Examples in Literature In Homer’s "Iliad" , Achilles is called “swift-footed Achilles,” showing his speed. In "Odyssey" , Odysseus is called “wise Odysseus” and “rosy-fingered dawn” describes the sunrise. In John Milton’s "Paradise Lost" , Satan is c...

An epistolary novel is a type of novel written in the form of letters, diary entries, emails, or other personal documents. The word epistolary comes from the Latin word epistola , meaning “letter.” In this kind of novel, the story is told through the written communication of the characters rather than by a single narrator. This form makes the story feel personal and realistic because readers get to see the characters’ private thoughts and emotions directly. It also allows different points of view since multiple characters can write their own letters or diary entries. Key Features The story is told through letters, diaries, or similar documents. It gives readers an intimate look into characters’ minds and feelings. It often presents multiple perspectives on the same events. It creates a sense of realism and authenticity. Famous Examples Samuel Richardson’s "Pamela" – one of the first epistolary novels, telling the story of a young servant girl through her letter...

An epigram is a short, clever, and often witty poem or statement that expresses an idea in a brief and memorable way. It usually ends with a surprising or humorous twist. The word comes from the Greek term epigramma , meaning “inscription,” because early epigrams were often carved on monuments or tombs. An epigram may be serious or humorous, but it always aims to be sharp, concise, and thought-provoking. Writers often use it to make moral, philosophical, or satirical points in just a few lines. Key Features Short and concise expression of thought. Witty, satirical, or surprising ending. Often written in verse but can also be a single sentence. Expresses truth, observation, or criticism with humor or irony. Famous Examples Alexander Pope – “What mighty contests rise from trivial things.” ( The Rape of the Lock ) Samuel Taylor Coleridge – “Swans sing before they die—’twere no bad thing / Should certain persons die before they sing.” Oscar Wilde – “I can resist everythin...

An epic is a long narrative poem that tells the story of a hero and his great adventures. The hero usually represents the values and ideals of a nation or culture. Epics often deal with grand themes such as bravery, honor, friendship, war, and the struggle between good and evil. The style of an epic is serious, formal, and elevated, and it often begins with an invocation to a muse and includes supernatural elements like gods or spirits. Epics were originally part of oral tradition, meaning they were told and passed down by word of mouth before being written down. They helped preserve the history, beliefs, and traditions of ancient societies. Key Features A long narrative poem with a grand, serious tone. A heroic main character with extraordinary qualities. Involvement of gods, supernatural forces, or fate. A vast setting covering many places and even worlds. Use of formal language and detailed descriptions. Begins with an invocation to a muse and starts “in medias res” (in t...

Introduction Joseph Brodsky (1940–1996) was one of the most powerful poetic voices of the twentieth century, a writer whose life and work embody the struggles of freedom, exile, and artistic integrity. Born in the Soviet Union, Brodsky was persecuted for his independent spirit and nonconformist writing, yet he rose to become an international figure, a Nobel laureate, and later the Poet Laureate of the United States. His poetry and essays, blending Russian and Western traditions, deal with timeless themes—exile, mortality, memory, faith, and the role of art in human survival. Brodsky’s work continues to inspire readers with its intellectual depth, moral courage, and lyrical intensity. Early Life and Background Joseph Brodsky was born Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky on 24 May 1940 in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), Russia. His parents were of Jewish descent, and his childhood was marked by poverty and postwar hardship. Although he never completed formal schooling, Brodsky developed a ...

Introduction Doris Lessing (1919–2013) was one of the most influential and daring writers of the twentieth century, whose works explored the complexities of human relationships, politics, psychology, and spiritual growth. A novelist, short story writer, and essayist, Lessing defied conventional boundaries, moving across genres such as realism, science fiction, autobiography, and political allegory. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007 , with the Swedish Academy praising her as the “epicist of the female experience” and a writer who, with “skepticism, fire, and visionary power,” examined a divided civilization. Lessing’s long and varied career reflects her restless intellect and her determination to challenge literary traditions, political ideologies, and social norms. Early Life and Background Doris May Tayler was born on 22 October 1919 in Kermanshah, Persia (modern-day Iran), where her British father worked as a bank official. Her family later moved to Southern...